Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages

Action
Agent-oriented
Array-oriented
Automata-based
Concurrent computing
- Relativistic programming
Data-driven
Declarative (contrast: Imperative)
- Constraint
  - Constraint logic
    - Concurrent constraint logic
- Dataflow
  - Flow-based
  - Cell-oriented (spreadsheets)
  - Reactive
- Functional
  - Functional logic
  - Purely functional
- Logic
Dynamic
End-user programming
Event-driven
- Service-oriented
- Time-driven
Expression-oriented
Feature-oriented
Function-level (contrast: Value-level)
Generic
Imperative (contrast: Declarative)
- Literate
- Procedural
Inductive programming
Language-oriented
- Natural language programming
- Discipline-specific
- Domain-specific
- Grammar-oriented
  - Dialecting
- Intentional
Metaprogramming
- Automatic
- Reflective
  - Attribute-oriented
- Homoiconic
- Template
  - Policy-based
Non-structured (contrast: Structured)
- Array
Nondeterministic
Parallel computing
- Process-oriented
Point-free style
- Concatenative
Semantic
Structured (contrast: Non-structured)
- Block-structured
- Modular (contrast: Monolithic)
- Object-oriented
- Recursive
Value-level (contrast: Function-level)
Probabilistic
Concept

Programming languages can be grouped by the number and types of paradigms supported.

Paradigm summaries

A concise reference for the programming paradigms listed in this article.

Concurrent programming – have language constructs for concurrency, these may involve multi-threading, support for distributed computing, message passing, shared resources (including shared memory), or futures
- Actor programming – concurrent computation with actors that make local decisions in response to the environment (capable of selfish or competitive behavior)
Constraint programming – relations between variables are expressed as constraints (or constraint networks), directing allowable solutions (uses constraint satisfaction or simplex algorithm)
Dataflow programming – forced recalculation of formulas when data values change (e.g. spreadsheets)
Declarative programming – describes actions (e.g. HTML describes a page but not how to actually display it)
Distributed programming – have support for multiple autonomous computers that communicate via computer networks
Functional programming – uses evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data
Generic programming – uses algorithms written in terms of to-be-specified-later types that are then instantiated as needed for specific types provided as parameters
Imperative programming – explicit statements that change a program state
Logic programming – uses explicit mathematical logic for programming
Metaprogramming – writing programs that write or manipulate other programs (or themselves) as their data, or that do part of the work at compile time that would otherwise be done at runtime
- Template metaprogramming – metaprogramming methods in which templates are used by a compiler to generate temporary source code, which is merged by the compiler with the rest of the source code and then compiled
- Reflective programming – metaprogramming methods in which a program modifies or extends itself
Object-oriented programming – uses data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions (objects) to design programs
- Class-based – object-oriented programming in which inheritance is achieved by defining classes of objects, versus the objects themselves
- Prototype-based – object-oriented programming that avoids classes and implements inheritance via cloning of instances
Pipeline programming – a simple syntax change to add syntax to nest function calls to language originally designed with none
Rule-based programming – a network of rules of thumb that comprise a knowledge base and can be used for expert systems and problem deduction & resolution
Visual programming – manipulating program elements graphically rather than by specifying them textually (e.g. Simulink); also termed diagrammatic programming^[1]

Language overview

List of multi-paradigm programming languages
Language	Number of Paradigms	Concurrent	Constraints	Dataflow	Declarative	Distributed	Functional	Metaprogramming	Generic	Imperative	Logic	Reflection	Object-oriented	Pipelines	Visual	Rule-based	Other paradigms
Ada^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6]	5	Yes^{[a 1]}	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
ALF	2	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No
AmigaE	2	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
APL	2	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No
BETA	3	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
C++	7 (14)	Yes^[7]^[8]^[9]	Library^[10]	Library^[11]^[12]	Library^[13]^[14]	Library^[15]^[16]	Yes	Yes^[17]	Yes^{[a 3]}	Yes	Library^[18]^[19]	Library^[20]	Yes^{[a 2]}	Yes^[21]	No	Library^[22]	No
C#	6 (7)	Yes	No	Library^{[a 4]}	No	No	Yes^{[a 5]}	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	reactive^{[a 6]}
ChucK	3	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
Claire	2	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
Common Lisp (some other paradigms are implemented as libraries)	5	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
Curl	5	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	Yes^{[a 3]}	Yes	No	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
Curry	4	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No
D (version 2.0)^[23]^[24]	6	Yes^{[a 7]}	No	No	No	No	Yes	Yes^[25]^{[a 3]}	Yes^{[a 3]}	Yes	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
Dylan	3	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
E	3	Yes	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
ECMAScript^[26]^[27] (ActionScript, E4X, JavaScript, JScript)	4 (5)	partial (promises, native extensions)^{[a 8]}	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes^{[a 9]}	No	No	No	reactive^{[a 10]}
Embarcadero Delphi	3	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes^{[a 3]}	Yes	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
Erlang	3	Yes	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No
Elixir	4	Yes	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No
Elm	6	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	reactive
F#	7 (8)	Yes^{[a 7]}	No	Library^{[a 4]}	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	reactive^{[a 6]}
Falcon	4	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
Fortran	4	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes^{[a 11]}	No	Yes^{[a 12]}	No	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
Io	4	Yes^{[a 7]}	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes^{[a 9]}	No	No	No	No
J	3	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
Java	6	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
Julia	9 (10)	Yes	Library^[28]	No	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes "multiple dispatch"	Yes	No	No	Multiple dispatch and Array
LabVIEW	4	Yes	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	No	No
Lava	2	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	Yes	No	No
Leda	4	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
LispWorks (version 6.0 with support for symmetric multi-processing, rules, logic (Prolog), CORBA)	9	Yes	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	Yes	No
Lua	3	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes^{[a 9]}	No	No	No	No
MATLAB	6 (9)	Toolbox^[29]	Toolbox^[30]	Yes^[31]	No	Toolbox^[32]	No	Yes^[33]	Yes^[34]	No	No	Yes^[35]	Yes^[36]	No	Yes^[37]	No	Array
Nemerle	7	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
Object Pascal	4	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
OCaml	4	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
Oz	9	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	Yes	No
Perl	8 (9)	Yes^[38]	Library^[39]	Yes^[40]	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	Yes^{[a 2]}	Yes	No	No	No
PHP^[41]^[42]^[43]	4	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
Picat^[44]	8	No	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes
Pliant	3	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
PointDragon	3	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	No	No
Poplog	3	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No
Prograph	3	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	Yes	No	No
Python	5 (10)	Library^[45]^[46]	Library^[47]	No	No	Library^[48]	Partial	Yes^[49]^[50]	Yes^[51]^[52]	Yes	Library^[53]	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	structured
R	4	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	Array
Racket	6	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	No
ROOP	3	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes	No
Ruby	4	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
Rust (version 1.0.0-alpha)	6	Yes^{[a 7]}	No	No	No	No	Yes	Yes^[54]^[55]	Yes^[56]	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	linear, affline, and ownership types
Sather	2	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
Scala^[57]^[58]	9	Yes^{[a 7]}	No	Yes ^{[a 13]}	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
Simula	2	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	No
SISAL	3	Yes	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No
Spreadsheets	2	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No
Swift	3	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	block-structured
Tcl with Snit extension	3	No	No	No	No	No	Yes^[59]	No	No	Yes	No	No	Yes^{[a 9]}^[60]	No	No	No	No
Visual Basic .NET	6 (7)	Yes	No	Library^{[a 4]}	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	No	No	No	reactive^{[a 6]}
Windows PowerShell	6	No	No	No	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	Yes	No	No	No
Wolfram Language & Mathematica	13^[61]	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	Yes	Knowledge Based

Notes

↑ rendezvous and monitor-like based
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 Class-based
1 2 3 4 5 Template metaprogramming
1 2 3 using TPL Dataflow
↑ only lambda support (lazy functional programming)
1 2 3 using Reactive Extensions (Rx)
1 2 3 4 5 actor programming
↑ using Node.js' cluster module or child_process.fork method, web workers in the browser, etc.
1 2 3 4 Prototype-based
↑ using Reactive Extensions (RxJS)
↑ purely functional
↑ parameterized classes
↑ Akka

References

↑ Bragg, S.D.; Driskill, C.G. (20–22 September 1994). "Diagrammatic-graphical programming languages and DoD-STD-2167A". IEEEXplore. IEEE.
↑ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 9: Tasks and Synchronization
↑ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3 Annex E: Distributed Systems
↑ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 12: Generic Units
↑ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 6: Subprograms
↑ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, 3.9 Tagged Types and Type Extensions
↑ Thread support
↑ Atomics support
↑ Memory model
↑ Gecode
↑ SystemC
↑ Boost.Iostreams
↑ Boolinq
↑ AraRat
↑ OpenMPI
↑ Boost.MPI
↑ Boost.MPL
↑ LC++
↑ Castor
↑ Reflect Library
↑ N3534
↑ Boost.Spirit
↑ D Language Feature Table
↑ Phobos std.algorithm
↑ D language String Mixins
↑ The Little JavaScripter demonstrates fundamental commonality with Scheme, a functional language.
↑ Object Oriented Programming in JavaScript gives an overview of object-oriented programming techniques in JavaScript.
↑ https://jump.readthedocs.io/en/latest/
↑ "Execute loop iterations in parallel". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
↑ "Write Constraints". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
↑ "Getting Started with SimEvents". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
↑ "Execute loop iterations in parallel". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
↑ "Execute MATLAB expression in text - MATLAB eval". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
↑ "Determine class of object". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
↑ "Class Metadata". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
↑ "Object-Oriented Programming". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
↑ "Simulink". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
↑ interpreter based threads
↑ Moose
↑ Higher Order Perl
↑ PHP Manual, Chapter 17. Functions
↑ PHP Manual, Chapter 19. Classes and Objects (PHP 5)
↑ PHP Manual, Anonymous functions
↑
↑ "Parallel Processing and Multiprocessing in Python". wiki.python.org. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
↑ "threading — Higher-level threading interface". docs.python.org. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
↑ "python-constraint". pypi.python.org. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
↑ "DistributedProgramming". wiki.python.org. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
↑ "Chapter 9. Metaprogramming". chimera.labs.oreilly.com. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
↑ "Metaprogramming". readthedocs.io. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
↑ "PEP 443 -- Single-dispatch generic functions". python.org. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
↑ "PEP 484 -- Type Hints". python.org. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
↑ "PyDatalog". Retrieved 22 October 2016.
↑ "The Rust macros guide". Rust. Retrieved 19 January 2015.
↑ "The Rust compiler plugins guide". Rust. Retrieved 19 January 2015.
↑ The Rust Reference §6.1.3.1
↑ An Overview of the Scala Programming Language
↑ Scala Language Specification
↑ "Tcl Programming/Introduction". en.wikibooks.org. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
↑ "TCLLIB - Tcl Standard Library: snitfaq:". sourceforge.net. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
↑ Notes for Programming Language Experts, Wolfram Language Documentation.

Multiparadigm Design for C++, by Jim Coplien, 1998.
Constraint Solving and Planning with Picat, Book by Neng-Fa Zhou, Håkan Kjellerstrand, and Jonathan Fruhman: Constraint Solving and Planning with Picat, Springer Verlag. ISBN 9783319258812 (paper)

Types of programming languages

Actor-based Array Aspect-oriented Class-based Concatenative Concurrent Data-structured Dataflow Declarative Domain-specific Dynamic Esoteric Event-driven Extensible Functional Imperative Logic Macro Metaprogramming+*Multi-paradigm Object-based Object-oriented Pipeline Procedural Prototype-based Reflective Rule-based Scripting Synchronous Templating

Assembly Compiled Interpreted Machine

Low-level High-level Very high-level

First generation Second generation Third generation Fourth generation Fifth generation

Non-English-based Visual

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Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages

Paradigm summaries

Language overview

See also

Notes

References